As temperatures rise this summer, you might be wondering which drink will best keep you hydrated.

Water is the top choice for staying hydrated as it provides no extra calories or additives.

Why Is Water Important?

Water is vital for our health, supporting numerous essential functions in the body.

It helps deliver nutrients to cells, remove waste, protect joints and organs, and regulate body temperature.

Water should generally be your go-to drink, especially when compared to sugary beverages like soda or juice, which can be high in sugar and calories.

How Much Water Do I Need?

The amount of water needed can vary based on factors like activity level, health status, size, and gender.

The Institute of Medicine offers these general guidelines:

• Men: 13 cups (about 3 liters) per day
• Women: 9 cups (slightly over 2 liters) per day; pregnant women should aim for 10 cups, and breastfeeding women should consume 12 cups.
• Children and Teens: 6 to 8 cups daily, depending on activity and age.

Eating fresh fruits and vegetables with high water content can also contribute to your daily hydration.

For more personalized advice, consider consulting your doctor or dietitian.

Can You Drink Too Much Water?

While dehydration is commonly recognized as a risk, drinking too much water can also be harmful.

Excessive water intake can throw off your electrolyte balance, affecting sodium, chloride, and potassium levels.

Symptoms of dehydration include thirst, flushing, fatigue, and rapid breathing, while overhydration may cause nausea, headaches, cramps, weakness, and confusion.

Most people face a higher risk of dehydration, but if you have concerns or experience symptoms of overhydration, it’s a good idea to consult your doctor about how much water you should be drinking.

There are four primary blood types: A, B, AB, and O.

Your blood type is inherited from the genes passed down by your parents.

Each blood type can either be RhD positive or RhD negative, giving a total of eight possible blood types.

Antibodies and Antigens

Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, all suspended in plasma.

Your blood type is determined by the specific antibodies and antigens it contains.

• Antibodies are proteins in plasma that play a role in the immune system. They detect foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses, and signal the body to destroy them.
• Antigens are protein molecules found on the surface of red blood cells.

The ABO Blood System

The four main blood groups are classified according to the ABO system:

• Group A: Has A antigens on red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in plasma.
• Group B: Has B antigens on red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in plasma.
• Group O: Lacks A and B antigens on red blood cells but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma.
• Group AB: Has both A and B antigens on red blood cells and no antibodies in plasma.

Group O is the most common blood type, with approximately 48% of the UK population having this blood type.

Receiving the wrong ABO type can be harmful. For example, if someone with type B blood receives type A blood, their anti-A antibodies will attack the A cells, which can cause serious complications.

This is why type A blood should not be given to someone with type B blood, and vice versa.

Group O red blood cells can be given to any group because they don’t have A or B antigens.

The Rh System

In addition to the ABO system, red blood cells may also carry a protein known as the RhD antigen.

If you have this antigen, your blood type is RhD positive; if not, it’s RhD negative.

This adds another layer, resulting in eight possible blood types:

• A RhD positive (A+)
• A RhD negative (A-)
• B RhD positive (B+)
• B RhD negative (B-)
• O RhD positive (O+)
• O RhD negative (O-)
• AB RhD positive (AB+)
• AB RhD negative (AB-)

O RhD negative blood is commonly used in emergencies because it lacks A, B, and RhD antigens, making it safe for most recipients, regardless of blood type.

Blood Group Testing

To determine your blood type, a blood sample is mixed with different antibody solutions.

If your red blood cells clump when mixed with a specific antibody, you have the corresponding antigen.

For example, if your blood reacts to anti-B antibodies, your blood type is B, because you have B antigens.

If your blood doesn’t react to either anti-A or anti-B antibodies, your blood type is O. Additional tests are conducted to confirm the exact blood type.

Before a blood transfusion, your blood is tested against the donor’s blood to ensure compatibility with their ABO and RhD type.

If no reaction occurs, the transfusion can proceed with the matching blood.

Lower back pain is very common and typically improves within a few weeks, although it can occasionally persist or return.

There are various steps you can take to alleviate the pain.

Causes of Back Pain

Back pain can have many causes, and the exact reason is not always clear. In most cases, it improves on its own.

One of the most common causes is muscle strain or injury.

Other medical conditions, such as a slipped disc, sciatica (pinched nerve), or ankylosing spondylitis, may also contribute to back pain.

In rare instances, back pain could indicate a more serious condition, such as a bone fracture, cancer, or infection.

Self-care Tips for Easing Back Pain

Back pain often improves within a few weeks, and there are things you can do to help recover more quickly.

• Stay active and try to stick to your usual routine as much as possible.
• Take anti-inflammatory medications like ibuprofen. Paracetamol alone isn’t recommended, but it can be taken with another pain reliever.
• Use an ice pack (or a bag of frozen peas wrapped in cloth) to reduce pain and swelling.
• Apply a heat pack (or hot water bottle wrapped in cloth) to relieve muscle spasms or joint stiffness.
• Try exercises and stretches that are specifically designed for back pain.

• Avoid staying in bed for extended periods of time.

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, primarily affecting the lungs.

It spreads through the air when a person with lung TB coughs, sneezes, or spits, and only a small number of bacteria are needed to cause an infection.

Annually, 10 million people are infected with TB, and despite being preventable and treatable, it claims the lives of 1.5 million people each year, making it the leading infectious cause of death globally.

TB is the primary cause of death among people with HIV and contributes significantly to the rise of antimicrobial resistance.

While TB is widespread, it disproportionately impacts low- and middle-income countries, with nearly half of all TB cases occurring in eight countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, and South Africa.

Around a quarter of the global population carries the TB bacteria, but most do not develop the disease. People who are not ill cannot spread the infection.

Those carrying TB bacteria have a 5–10% lifetime risk of developing the disease, but individuals with weakened immune systems—such as those living with HIV, malnutrition, diabetes, or those who smoke—are at higher risk.

Symptoms

Common symptoms of TB include:

• Persistent cough
• Chest pain
• Weakness or fatigue
• Weight loss
• Fever
• Night sweats

These symptoms can be mild and may persist for months, which often delays medical attention and increases the risk of spreading the disease.

If TB is suspected, healthcare providers will conduct tests, such as testing a sputum sample for TB bacteria in cases of lung TB, or testing samples from affected body fluids or tissues for non-lung TB.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends rapid molecular diagnostic tests as the preferred method for diagnosing TB, with other methods including sputum smear microscopy and chest X-rays.

TB infection occurs when the bacteria enter the body but remain dormant. It can develop into active TB disease if the immune system weakens. People with TB infection show no symptoms.

Healthcare providers use skin or blood tests to detect TB infection in individuals at risk, screening for active TB.

Treatment

TB is curable and is typically treated with a standard six-month regimen of four antibiotics, including rifampicin and isoniazid.

In some cases, TB bacteria may not respond to these drugs, leading to drug-resistant TB, which requires more complex and prolonged treatment.

TB treatment requires close supervision and support from healthcare workers or trained volunteers, as adherence to the treatment plan is crucial.

Incomplete treatment can result in drug resistance, which increases the risk of spreading the disease.

For individuals with latent TB infection (those infected but not yet sick), preventive treatment can be given to prevent the disease from developing. This treatment uses the same antibiotics but for a shorter duration.

Recent advances have reduced the length of preventive treatment to 1 to 3 months, compared to the previous six-month regimen.

Pneumonia is a serious respiratory infection mainly caused by viruses or bacteria.

Its severity can range from mild to life-threatening and can affect people of all ages.

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However, it is especially concerning as the leading infectious cause of death in children worldwide.

In 2017, pneumonia caused over 808,000 deaths in children under five, accounting for 15% of all deaths in this age group.

Adults over 65 and those with existing health conditions are also at a higher risk for developing pneumonia.

The lungs contain small air sacs called alveoli, which normally fill with air when breathing.

During pneumonia, these alveoli become filled with pus and fluid, leading to painful breathing and impaired oxygen intake.

Pneumonia is typically transmitted through direct contact with infected individuals.

Vaccination is a critical preventive measure against pneumonia.

Symptoms

Pneumonia symptoms can vary in severity and may include:

• Coughing
• Difficulty breathing
• Fever with sweating and shaking chills
• Fatigue
• Chest pain
• Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea
• Confusion, especially in older adults

Treatment

Bacterial pneumonia can be treated with antibiotics, with amoxicillin dispersible tablets being the preferred option.

Most cases are treated with oral antibiotics, which can typically be prescribed at health centers.

Trained community health workers can diagnose and treat many cases with affordable oral antibiotics at the community level.

Severe cases may require hospitalization.

In addition to medication, rest and staying hydrated are important for recovery.

Prevention

Pneumonia risk can be reduced through the following measures:

• Vaccination: Immunizations against Hib, pneumococcus, measles, influenza, and whooping cough are key to prevention.
• Hand hygiene: Frequent handwashing, especially when caring for sick individuals or after nose-blowing, helps stop the spread of germs.
• Environmental changes: Reducing indoor air pollution by using clean stoves and avoiding smoking lowers the risk of pneumonia.
• Healthy lifestyle: A balanced diet, regular exercise, and enough rest support overall health.
• Proper nutrition: Ensuring proper nutrition strengthens the body’s natural defenses, starting with exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life.

If olives are technically a fruit, could olive oil be considered a type of fruit juice?

While we may not typically group it with apple or orange juice, there’s a reason olive oil has been prized for centuries.

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In addition to its use in cooking, olive oil is also popular in skincare, hair care, and as a remedy for sore throats and wounds.

Though you might think of it as less healthy than typical fruit juices, olive oil actually offers a range of health benefits when consumed regularly.

Health Benefits of Olive Oil

Olive oil is packed with health-boosting properties.

It’s rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), which can help raise “good” HDL cholesterol and lower “bad” LDL cholesterol. In fact, olive oil contains more MUFAs than any other plant-based cooking oil.

The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds in olive oil may also assist in reducing plaque buildup in arteries and protecting the body from harmful substances associated with chronic diseases like cancer, heart disease, and autoimmune disorders.

Types of Olive Oil

While all olive oils provide health benefits, their nutritional quality varies due to differences in the levels of polyphenols and antioxidants, which offer anti-inflammatory and protective effects.

• Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO): The least processed type, EVOO retains the highest levels of polyphenols and antioxidants. It’s made using a single extraction process, which helps preserve these beneficial compounds.
• Virgin Olive Oil (VOO): Slightly more processed, VOO still retains most of the polyphenols and antioxidants found in EVOO, though its flavor is milder.
• Light, Pure, and Refined Olive Oils: These are the most processed options, with the mildest flavor, but they contain far fewer beneficial compounds.