Are you aware of your risk for a stroke? While it’s impossible to predict with certainty if a stroke will happen, there are certain warning signs that can suggest an increased risk.

The good news is that many of these risk factors can be managed, helping to lower your chances of having a stroke.

1. High Blood Pressure
   Consistently high blood pressure (hypertension) is a significant stroke risk factor. However, it can be controlled with medication, dietary changes, stress management, and quitting smoking. It’s important to regularly check your blood pressure and work with your healthcare provider to keep it in check.
2. High Blood Sugar
   Uncontrolled diabetes and high blood sugar levels can damage blood vessels, raising the risk of stroke. Regular checkups and proper treatment, such as medication or lifestyle changes, can help regulate blood sugar and reduce your stroke risk.
3. Smoking
   Smoking greatly increases your chances of having a stroke. While quitting may be challenging, the benefits of stopping are substantial, and much of the damage can be reversed after you quit.
4. Lack of Exercise
   Although exercising may seem inconvenient, it’s crucial for heart health and can help reduce your stroke risk. Even if you have underlying health conditions or have had a stroke before, there are simple, safe exercises that can improve your health and lower your stroke risk.
5. High Cholesterol
   High cholesterol is another major stroke risk factor. Keeping your cholesterol levels in check is vital for lowering your risk and preventing other heart-related issues. Your healthcare provider can assist in making dietary adjustments and determine if medication is needed.
6. Excessive Alcohol Consumption
   Drinking more than one alcoholic drink per day for women or two for men can elevate blood pressure and triglyceride levels, contributing to atherosclerosis (hardened arteries), which increases stroke risk.
7. Obesity
   Obesity increases the risk of stroke due to its links to other risk factors, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes. Adopting a healthy diet and exercise routine can help with weight loss, significantly reducing your stroke risk.
8. Not Taking Your Medications
   Many stroke risk factors can be controlled with the right medication. It’s important to consistently take prescribed medications and attend regular checkups to manage your health and reduce your risk of a stroke.
9. Not Seeking Treatment for Heart Disease
   If you experience chest pain or shortness of breath, seek medical help immediately. Heart disease is a major risk factor for stroke, and any chest pain should not be ignored. Your healthcare provider can help identify the cause and offer the proper treatment.
10. Ignoring TIAs
    A transient ischemic attack (TIA) is often a precursor to a stroke. Learn the symptoms of TIAs and strokes—if you experience any, seek immediate medical attention. TIAs serve as an important warning sign that you’re at higher risk for a stroke.

Coffee is more than just a tasty way to wake up — it might also provide several health benefits.

Recent research has highlighted how coffee can positively impact various areas of health.

Here are 7 reasons why coffee could be one of the healthiest beverages you can enjoy.

1. Coffee Enhances Brain Function
   Coffee does more than just keep you alert — it can boost brain function. Caffeine, the main active compound in coffee, blocks adenosine, a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep and relaxation, leading to increased neuronal activity. This in turn boosts the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine, improving mood, alertness, and cognitive performance. Studies show that caffeine can temporarily enhance memory, mood, reaction time, and overall brain function.
2. Coffee Helps Burn Fat and Improve Physical Performance
   Caffeine is a common ingredient in fat-burning supplements because it has a thermogenic effect, which raises your metabolic rate and helps burn fatty acids. Additionally, caffeine can improve athletic performance by releasing fatty acids from fat tissues, providing more fuel for muscles. Research indicates that caffeine can enhance exercise performance by 11-12% on average.
3. Coffee May Lower the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes
   Type 2 diabetes is a growing global issue, but studies suggest that coffee drinkers have a significantly lower risk of developing this condition. Research shows that coffee consumption is associated with a 23% to 67% lower risk. One large review found that each additional cup of coffee daily reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes by 7%, with regular drinkers being less likely to develop the disease.
4. Coffee May Protect Against Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s
   Beyond boosting short-term brain function, coffee may help protect the brain in the long run. Both Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases are common neurodegenerative disorders, but studies show that coffee drinkers have a 60% lower risk of developing Alzheimer’s and dementia. For Parkinson’s, the risk reduction may range from 32% to 60%.
5. Coffee Is Beneficial for Your Liver
   The liver plays a critical role in detoxification and regulating blood sugar, but it’s vulnerable to damage from factors like excessive alcohol consumption or poor diet. Studies indicate that drinking coffee significantly reduces the risk of cirrhosis, a serious liver disease, often linked to alcohol abuse, with coffee drinkers having up to an 80% lower risk. Coffee is also associated with a 40% lower risk of liver cancer.
6. Coffee May Help You Live Longer
   Despite concerns about its potential negative health effects, coffee may actually promote longevity. Large studies have shown that coffee drinkers generally have a lower risk of death from all causes. This benefit is particularly notable for people with type 2 diabetes, with one study finding that diabetic coffee drinkers had a 30% lower risk of death over a 20-year period.
7. Coffee Is Rich in Nutrients and Antioxidants
   Coffee isn’t just a source of caffeine — it’s also packed with vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. A single cup of coffee contains essential nutrients like pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (B3), thiamine (B1), potassium, and manganese. In addition, coffee is one of the largest sources of antioxidants in the Western diet, often surpassing fruits and vegetables in antioxidant content.

Conclusion

Moderate coffee consumption offers numerous health benefits, but it’s important not to overconsume.

Excessive intake can negatively affect sleep and anxiety.

Many studies connecting coffee to health benefits are observational, so while they show a relationship, they don’t prove direct causation.

To maximize health benefits, avoid adding too much sugar or cream.

If coffee disrupts your sleep, consider avoiding it after early afternoon.

In moderation, coffee can be one of the healthiest drinks you can enjoy.

If you’re feeling unusually tired during the day, it may indicate that you’re not getting enough rest at night.

So, how much sleep do adults typically need to feel refreshed?

This article discusses the average sleep requirements for adults, how these needs change with age, and other factors that can impact sleep quality—whether or not you’re getting enough hours of sleep.

Factors Affecting Sleep Needs

Several factors, including genetics, age, health, and daily activities, determine how much sleep you need.

Some people require more sleep to feel rejuvenated, while others can function well with less.

As we age, deep sleep tends to decrease, resulting in more time spent in lighter sleep and a higher likelihood of experiencing insomnia.

Health issues such as chronic pain or sleep disorders like sleep apnea can also interfere with sleep quality.

Moreover, your physical activity level, including exercise, can influence the amount of sleep needed.

Getting adequate sleep helps prevent the negative effects of sleep deprivation and boosts your daytime performance.

While most people meet their sleep needs by sleeping through the night, naps can also help enhance rest.

One way to determine your ideal sleep amount is by adjusting your sleep schedule and observing how your body feels.

How Much Sleep Do Adults Need?

For most healthy adults, the recommended amount of sleep is between 7 and 9 hours per night.

Studies suggest that the optimal sleep duration for maintaining alertness during the day is about 8 hours and 10 minutes.

However, adults over 65 may require slightly less sleep, typically around 7 to 8 hours. Spending too much time in bed can sometimes lead to insomnia for these individuals.

Sleep needs tend to follow a bell curve, meaning while many people need 7 to 9 hours of sleep, some exceptions exist.

Some people feel fully rested after only 6 hours of sleep, and additional sleep may affect their sleep quality.

Conversely, others may need 9 hours (or more) to feel well-rested, and anything less can lead to sleep deprivation.

If you find yourself frequently tired during the day, it could indicate that you’re not getting enough sleep.

To improve this, establish a consistent sleep schedule by going to bed when you’re sleepy and minimizing disruptions during sleep.

Additionally, try to get 15 to 30 minutes of sunlight exposure shortly after waking, ideally at sunrise.

The Effects of Sleep Deprivation

Chronic sleep deprivation creates a “sleep debt,” which negatively impacts both your physical and mental health.

Consistently failing to meet your body’s sleep needs may result in issues like fatigue, poor cognitive performance, and an increased risk of conditions like obesity.

Sometimes, the quality of sleep is just as important as the number of hours you sleep.

Sleep disorders, such as obstructive sleep apnea or periodic limb movements during sleep, can significantly reduce sleep effectiveness.

If you’re getting the recommended amount of sleep but still feel tired or experience daytime drowsiness, it may be helpful to consult a sleep specialist.

There may be underlying factors affecting the quality of your sleep that need to be addressed.

The liver is essential for filtering blood, metabolizing food and medications, and assisting in blood clotting.

Several conditions, such as excessive alcohol consumption, certain medications, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and chronic infections, can damage the liver.

However, liver damage often develops without noticeable symptoms in its early stages, making it hard to detect until the liver has sustained significant harm.

Common Signs of Liver Damage

• Abdominal pain
• Fatigue
• Itching
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea and vomiting
• Sexual dysfunction

Liver Damage vs. Liver Failure: Key Differences

Liver damage and liver failure are related but distinct.

Liver damage refers to harm to the liver tissue, which can be either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term).

Chronic liver damage can lead to liver failure, a life-threatening condition in which the liver cannot perform its critical functions, such as filtering blood, aiding digestion, and producing blood-clotting proteins.

Causes of Liver Damage

Several factors and diseases can lead to liver damage, which may progress to cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) and eventually liver failure:

• Alcoholic liver disease: Resulting from long-term excessive alcohol consumption.
• Autoimmune hepatitis: Where the immune system attacks liver cells.
• Chronic heart failure: Leads to liver congestion and impaired blood flow.
• Inherited liver diseases: Such as Wilson’s disease and hemochromatosis.
• Long-term medication use: Including acetaminophen, aspirin, and antibiotics like tetracycline.
• Chronic viral infections: Like hepatitis B or C.
• Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): Associated with obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol.
• Primary biliary cholangitis: A disease affecting bile ducts.

How Liver Damage Progresses

Liver damage can present in various ways depending on its cause.

Some conditions, such as hepatitis or other chronic liver diseases, may not show symptoms for years.

• As the liver becomes more damaged, especially with cirrhosis or liver failure, symptoms become more noticeable.

Early Stages of Liver Damage

Initially, inflammation (hepatitis) occurs, often without obvious symptoms.

Doctors typically detect liver damage through blood tests, such as liver function tests and a complete blood count.

As inflammation continues, scarring (fibrosis) may develop, impairing liver function. Early symptoms may include:

• Fatigue or weakness
• Itchy skin
• Nausea and vomiting
• Loss of appetite
• Abdominal discomfort or dull pain
• Unexplained weight loss
• Sexual dysfunction
• Spider-like blood vessels on the skin

Progressive Stages

As chronic liver damage advances, fibrosis may progress to cirrhosis, which is the most severe form of liver scarring.

At this stage, more serious symptoms can develop, such as:

• Ascites (fluid buildup in the abdomen)
• Mental confusion (hepatic encephalopathy)
• Easy bruising or bleeding
• Swelling in the legs (edema)
• Jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)
• Dark urine or stools
• Vomiting blood or substances resembling coffee grounds

Advanced liver disease can lead to life-threatening complications like bleeding, infections, and organ failure.

Emergency Symptoms of Liver Damage

Seek immediate medical help or call 911 if you experience any of the following symptoms:

• Rectal bleeding, vomiting blood, or blood in urine
• Confusion or difficulty concentrating
• Severe diarrhea or watery stools
• Shortness of breath
• Fever (above 101°F)
• Sudden or worsening ascites
• Sudden or worsening jaundice
• Severe abdominal or chest pain
• Frequent vomiting

Monitoring Liver Health

Healthcare providers may use imaging tests, like X-rays, MRIs, or CT scans, to track liver damage. A biopsy may also be performed to assess the extent of liver inflammation and scarring.

Stages of Liver Disease (Graded by Biopsy)

1. Liver disease can be graded based on liver tissue damage:

• Stage 0: Healthy liver with no inflammation or scarring.
• Stage 1: Inflammation present but no scarring.
• Stage 2: Scar tissue begins to form, but the liver still functions well.
• Stage 3: Widespread scarring (fibrosis) without cirrhosis.
• Stage 4: Cirrhosis, severe scarring, and complications like varices and ascites.

Recognizing Liver Damage in Others

Symptoms of liver damage may not be immediately noticeable. Be alert for signs in others, such as:

• Fatigue or changes in sleep patterns
• Mood or personality changes
• Confusion, forgetfulness, or difficulty with daily tasks
• Unexplained weight loss
• Red veins or “spider veins” on the skin
• Yellowing of the skin or eyes (jaundice), which may be less obvious in individuals with darker skin.

Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix, a small, finger-shaped organ located on the lower right side of the abdomen, attached to the large intestine (colon).

When the appendix becomes inflamed, it swells and fills with pus, a thick, infectious fluid.

If not treated, the inflamed appendix can rupture, releasing pus into the abdominal cavity and leading to a severe infection.

What Causes Appendicitis?

Appendicitis typically occurs when the opening of the appendix (the lumen) becomes blocked, preventing it from draining properly. This blockage results in swelling, infection, and pus accumulation. Several factors can cause this blockage, including:

• Fecaliths (hardened stool)
• Lymphoid hyperplasia (enlargement of lymphatic tissue in the appendix)
• Digestive tract infections (such as viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections)
• Tumors (both cancerous and noncancerous) in the appendix or colon
• Appendicoliths (hardened stool and mineral deposits)
• Abdominal trauma
• Swallowed foreign objects (rare), like fruit seeds (e.g., from oranges, melons, or grapes)

Once the appendix becomes blocked, it swells, becomes painful, and fills with pus.

What is Pus?

Pus is a thick, yellowish-white fluid composed of bacteria, dead white blood cells, and tissue debris.

As pus accumulates in the inflamed appendix, the pressure inside the organ increases, which can disrupt blood flow.

This may lead to necrosis (tissue death), and if left untreated, it could cause the appendix to rupture or burst open.

If the appendix ruptures, the pus may form an abscess around the appendix or leak into the abdominal cavity, resulting in a serious and potentially life-threatening infection called peritonitis.

Can the Appendix Rupture?

It’s not always possible to predict whether an inflamed appendix will rupture, but certain factors can increase the risk. Studies show that appendicoliths (hardened stool and mineral deposits) are more likely to lead to rupture than other types of blockages, such as fecaliths.

People at greater risk of appendix rupture include those who:

• Are over 60 years old
• Have a fever above 99.1°F
• Show signs of guarding (tensing of the abdominal muscles when pressure is applied to the painful area)
• Have a high white blood cell count
• Experience pain lasting more than 24 hours

Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent complications such as rupture and infection.

Constipation is a common issue that affects many people at some point.

It is often short-term and linked to lifestyle habits or the side effects of medications.

However, if constipation persists, it may be due to an underlying health condition, structural issues, or functional problems.

It is also frequently experienced during pregnancy.

What Is Constipation?

Constipation is typically characterized by the following symptoms:

• Fewer than three bowel movements per week
• Hard, dry, or lumpy stools
• Difficulty or pain when passing stools
• The sensation that not all stool has been passed

This article discusses the various lifestyle, medical, and genetic factors that contribute to constipation and lists medications that can cause the condition.

Common Causes of Constipation

The main cause of constipation is the slow movement of stool through the large intestine (colon).

As food moves through the digestive system, nutrients are absorbed by the time it reaches the colon, leaving waste and fluid.

The colon absorbs additional fluid, which solidifies the waste into stool.

However, when digestion slows, the colon absorbs too much fluid, leading to hard, dry stools that are difficult to pass.

Factors that influence the speed of digestion include diet, physical activity, and lifestyle choices.

Dietary Factors

Diet is one of the most common contributors to constipation. Excessive consumption of dairy, high-fat meats, eggs, and sugary foods can all slow digestion and contribute to constipation. Dairy products, especially cow’s milk, cheese, and ice cream, are known to harden stools.

A diet low in fiber—particularly insoluble fiber found in vegetables, fruits, beans, and whole grains—can also hinder the movement of food through the colon and result in constipation.

Inadequate Fluid Intake

Not drinking enough fluids is another major factor that contributes to constipation, particularly for individuals who consume a lot of fiber but don’t drink enough water. Proper hydration helps fiber function effectively, keeping stool soft and supporting regular bowel movements.

The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily fluid intake as follows:

• Women: 11.5 cups (2.7 liters)
• Men: 15.5 cups (3.7 liters)

This total includes fluids from both beverages and food sources, with about 20% of daily fluid intake coming from food.

Lifestyle Factors

Other lifestyle factors affecting bowel health include:

• Being inactive for extended periods
• Sudden changes in routine
• Ignoring the urge to have a bowel movement
• High levels of stress
• Traveling, particularly across time zones

Medical Conditions That Can Cause Constipation

Several medical conditions and disorders can contribute to chronic constipation, including:

• Celiac disease
• Chronic idiopathic constipation
• Depression and anxiety
• Diabetes
• Diverticulitis
• Electrolyte imbalances
• Fibromyalgia
• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• Pregnancy
• Thyroid disease

Medications That Cause Constipation

Certain medications can slow down digestion and lead to constipation. Some common drugs associated with constipation include:

• Antacids containing calcium or aluminum
• Anticholinergic drugs (e.g., antispasmodics)
• Antidepressants
• Antihistamines (allergy medications)
• Calcium channel blockers (for high blood pressure)
• Diuretics
• Opioid painkillers
• Some seizure medications
• Iron supplements
• Some blood pressure medications
• Some herbal supplements

It’s also important to note that overusing laxatives or enemas in an attempt to treat constipation can lead to dependence, making it difficult for the body to have normal bowel movements without assistance.

Structural Problems

Certain structural issues within the digestive system can lead to constipation:

• Anal fissures (painful tears around the anus)
• Bowel obstructions or strictures (narrowing of the intestines)
• Rectocele (a bulge of the rectum into the vagina)
• Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, such as dyssynergic defecation, where the pelvic floor muscles do not function properly, making it difficult to pass stool.

Neurological Causes

Certain neurological conditions can interfere with the muscles and nerves responsible for bowel movements, leading to constipation. These conditions include:

• Autism
• Dysautonomia
• Multiple sclerosis
• Parkinson’s disease
• Spinal cord injuries
• Stroke

Cancer

Cancer affecting the colon or rectum can also contribute to constipation, often accompanied by other symptoms such as unexplained weight loss, fatigue, and blood in the stool. If these signs appear, it’s important to consult a healthcare provider.

Genetic Factors

Constipation often runs in families, suggesting genetic factors may play a role. Children with chronic constipation are more likely to have relatives with the same condition. Additionally, Hirschsprung disease, a rare genetic disorder, causes a lack of nerve cells in the intestines, leading to severe constipation in early life.

Risk Factors for Constipation

Several factors increase the likelihood of developing constipation:

• Age: People aged 60 and older are more prone to constipation.
• Gender: Women are more likely to experience constipation than men.
• Eating disorders: Conditions like anorexia and bulimia can disrupt digestion and lead to constipation.
• Socioeconomic factors: Individuals with lower income may have limited access to healthy food or healthcare, increasing the risk of constipation.

Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition that can make breathing challenging.

Its symptoms can vary from mild to severe, and in some cases, they may be life-threatening.

The main issue in asthma is the inflammation of the airways—tubes that transport air to and from the lungs.

This inflammation narrows the airways, making it harder for air to flow and reducing oxygen intake.

Although there is no cure for asthma, it can be managed effectively with the right treatment and medication.

With proper management, many people with asthma can lead normal, active lives.

What to Do During an Asthma Attack If You Don’t Have an Inhaler

If you experience an asthma attack and don’t have your inhaler, it’s important to follow your asthma action plan.

The steps you take will depend on the situation, but staying calm is essential, as anxiety can worsen symptoms by tightening chest and back muscles, further restricting airflow.

Here’s what to do if you’re without an inhaler during an asthma attack:

1. Sit Up Straight: This helps open your airways. Avoid lying down or bending over, as it can make airway constriction worse.
2. Take Slow, Deep Breaths: Breathe deeply through your nose and exhale slowly through your mouth. This helps regulate your breathing and prevent hyperventilation.
3. Move Away from Triggers: If possible, remove yourself from the area that’s causing the attack. Find a space with clean, cool air, preferably air-conditioned, and continue to breathe deeply.
4. Drink a Warm, Caffeinated Beverage: A warm caffeinated drink like coffee or tea may help open your airways temporarily. Caffeine has properties similar to some asthma medications and may provide short-term relief.
5. Seek Immediate Medical Help: If your symptoms don’t improve or worsen, call 911 or get emergency medical assistance right away.

Asthma is a long-term respiratory condition that makes breathing difficult, with symptoms ranging from mild to potentially life-threatening in severe cases.

It causes inflammation in the airways, which are the passages that carry air to and from the lungs.

This inflammation narrows the airways, making it harder for air to flow, resulting in difficulty breathing.

Although asthma currently has no cure, it can be managed effectively with the right treatment and medication.

With proper management, most people with asthma can live active, normal lives.

What To Do During an Asthma Attack If You Have an Inhaler

If you experience an asthma attack and have an inhaler, follow these steps:

1. Prepare your inhaler: Remove the cap and shake the inhaler for 10 to 15 seconds. If you use a spacer, attach it.
2. Exhale fully: Breathe out completely to empty your lungs.
3. Use the inhaler: Place the inhaler’s mouthpiece in your mouth, press it to release a puff of medication, and inhale slowly and deeply.
4. Hold your breath: Hold your breath for 10 seconds to help the medication reach your lungs.
5. Repeat if needed: Wait for one minute between puffs and follow your healthcare provider’s instructions.
6. Seek medical help: If you don’t feel better after using the inhaler or if the attack gets worse, seek emergency help immediately by calling 911.